HISTORY
The Cholas ofThafijivur (ninth to twelfth centuries)
were great conquerors, who were not only paramount in
south India but for some time extended their sway as far
as the river Ganga in the north and brought Sri Lanka,
a part of Burma, the Malayan peninsula and some
islands of south-east Asia under their influence. They
were also mighty builders, who erected a large number
oftemples in their empire, some ofthem constituting the
finest specimens ofsouth Indian architecture. Inheritors
of the Pallava tradition, the edifices also reflect the
power and genius of their authors.
Karikala, the early Chola emperor of the &angam
age, is lost in legendary grandeur. It was several cen┬м
turies later that Vijayllaya, in circa 850, established a
small kingdom around Thafijlvur, which developed into
a gigantic empire under his successors. In the time of
Aditya and ParSntaka, the son and grandson respectively
ofVijayalaya, there was a great temple-building activity.
Parfintaka ruled for forty-eight years. Bearing such heroic
titles as viraJolan and samara-kesari, he extended his domi┬м
nions by conquests. As the conqueror of the Panqlyas,
who ruled further south at Madurai, and of Sri Lanka
he was styled Maduraiyum Itamum-konfa, i.e., one who
captured Madurai and Sri Lanka. He was a great
devotee of Siva in the Chidambaram temple, which he
covered with gold. That he was also a great scholar
and patron of literature is suggested by his title panditavatsala. He had sons who inherited his qualities but were unfortunately short-lived. His eldest son, Rajaditya,
while almost defeating the Rashtrakuta king, Krishna
III, died on the battle-field on his elephant at the
moment of victory.
His younger brother was Gandaraditya, whose queen, widowed early with a little child in
her arms, was a pious lady, remarkable for her generous
practice of building and endowing temples.
This was a weak period in Chola history, when
Krishna III asserted his power in Tondai-mandalam,
and, the son of Gandaraditya being just a babe, Arinjaya, the younger brother of Gandaraditya, ascended
the throne. But he soon lost his life on the battle-field
in trying to regain the lost territory from the Rashtrakutas. His son, Sundara-Chola, who succeeded him, was
a great warrior and a just ruler. Like his grandfather
Parantaka, he was a great patron of literature. His last
days were clouded by the sad assassination of his war-like
eldest son Aditya. His second son, Rajaraja, was then a
youth, accomplished and powerful; but the nobility of
Rajaraja was such that even though desired by his sub┬м
jects, he refused to ascend the throne, as his uncle
Uttama-Chola, the son of Gandaraditya, now quite
grown up, longed for it. Rajaraja eventually succeeded
Uttama-Chola.
Rajaraja I, known as Rajakesari Arumolivarman,
ascended the throne in 985 and was probably the
greatest of the Chola emperors. His military triumph,
organization of the empire, patronage of art and litera┬м
ture and religious tolerance are partially eclipsed by the
achievements of his son Rajendra, who was a great
military genius. As the Chola kingdom had just recovered from the onslaught of the Rashtrakutas, Rajaraja started
his reign, with military compaigns to strengthen his
position. He brought low the Keralas, P&ndyas and
Simhalas, overcame the western hilly tracts, Mysore and
Garigavadi.
He also overcame the Chalukya king SatyaSraya, the large treasures captured from whom were uti┬м
lized in the enrichment of the temple as Thanjavur. As a
sagacious conqueror, Rajaraja gave his daughter Kundavai in marriage to Vimaladitya, whose elder brother
Saktivarman, the Eastern Chalukya king, was under his
protection. He sent his son Rajendra to Kalinga and
established a pillar ofvictory on the Mahendra hill. With
his mighty navy, Rajaraja conquered the Maldives, be┬м
sides a number of other islands, and crippled the power
of the Cheras known for their naval strength. He was a
great builder and erected at Thanjavur the magnificent
temple known as the BrihadiSvara or RajarajeSvara.
Rajaraja was followed by his equally brilliant son
Rajendra (1012-44), undoubtedly the greatest ruler ofhis
line, who asserted his power in Sri Lanka, the Chera and
the Pandya countries and Vanavasi and overcame the
Chalukya Jayasirhha. He then turned his eyes to the north
in his desire to bring to his kingdom the waters of the
sacred river Gaiiga by the might of his arm. In less than
two years, Rajendra successfully overcame the Eastern
Chalukya territory, Kalinga and Dakshina-Kosala and
overcome the Pala king Mahipala of east India.
To celebrate his triumph, Rajendra created тАШa
liquid pillar of victory5 (jalamaya-stambha) in his new
capital at Gangaikondacholapuram, тАШthe city of the
Chola, the bringer of the Ganga5. In a great irrigation tank, now in ruins, the waters ofthe Gahga were poured
from pots brought by the vassal-kings as the only tribute
demanded by the emperor, who then assumed the title
of Gangaikondachola, тАШthe Chola king who brought the
GangaтАЩ. As thanksgiving, he erected a large temple in
honour of Siva, also known as the Brihadisvara, at his
capital.
Rajendra then utilized his mighty navy for attack┬м
ing and subduing the Sailendra king Sangramavijayottuhgavarman of Srivijaya (Sumatra-Java).
A number
of place-names mentioned in his inscriptions have been
understood as connoting places mostly in Malaya,
included in the empire of Srivijaya. His conquest of
Burma, the islandsin the Eastern Archipelago, Sri Lanka,
Lakshadweep and Maldives clearly proves the efficiency
of his unparalleled naval power. KBs great scholarship
and literary attainments earned him the title pantfitaChola. The marriage of his daughter AmmangSdevi
to his own nephew, the Eastern Ch&lukya king RajarSja,
shows his diplomatic genius. The child born of this
marriage was the great Rljendra-Choja Kulottuhga.
Kulottuhga succeeded his maternal uncles
R&j&dhiraja and Vlrar&jendra in 1070 and ruled over
a large empire that combined the Chola and Chalukya
dominions. He was powerful not only on land but on sea.
His power was felt even in distant Kalinga. VikramaGhola succeeded Rajendra-Choja.
Kulottuhga II, the son of Vikrama-Chola effected
elaborate renovations at the temple at Chidambaram.
This building-activity was sustained in the reign of
his son Rajaraja II (1150-73), whose title Raja-gambhira
6
HISTORY
is recorded in the mandapa of the Darasuram temple.
The growing zeal of the royal house in Saivism is mani┬м
fest in the stories of the Saiva saints at Dar&suram.
RajarajaтАЩs nephew, Rajadhiraja, was followed by
Kulottuhga III, the last of the great Chola emperors,
who, by his power and personality, checked the forces
ofdisruption that had been steadily eating into the vitals
of the empire. He was a great builder, and his region
is marked by several additions to the glorious chapter
of Chola architecture. His hand is evident not only
in the KampahareSvara temple at Tribhuvanam, the
most important monument of his reign, but also at
Kafichi, Madurai, Chidambaram, Tiruvarur, Tiruviejaimarudur and Darasuram.