ORISSI

Orissi may well claim to be the earliest classical Indian dance style on the basis of archaeological evidence, the most outstanding being the Rani Gupta caves of the second century B. C. in Orissa. Scholars have dated these caves and their carvings to be earlier than the writing ofthe Natyascistra. While there may be some questions about the date ofthe caves, certainly the reliefs include the first finished example of a dance scene with full orchestration. Whatever may have been the dance style prevalent at that tune, it is obvious that the traditions codified in theNatyascistra took cognizance ofthe particular regional style known in eastern India. The Natyascistra speaks ofregional varieties, one amongstthese is the eastern-southern style known as the Odhra Magadha style which can be identified as the earliest precursor of the present Orissi. The Udayagiri and the Khandagiri caves of Orissa are the first records in stone ofthe historic period. Although it is not certain thattheywere contemporarywith the compilation ofthe Natyascistra, there is no doubt that Orissa was the home of many kingdoms, Buddhist. Jaina and Shaivite and others, between the second century B. C. and the fifth century A. D. Recent excavations ofthe sites ofRatnagiri and Lalitagiri have brought forth valuable archaeological evidence which supports the view that dance or the dance image was as popular with the artists ofthe Buddhist monuments as it was with sculptors ofUdyagiri, the Rani Guinpha and the Hathi - Gumpha caves. In some door frames ofLalitagiri appear dance figures in movements and poses which certainly establish a continuity between the dance styles seen in Udayagiri and the later Orissan temples. Although no full dance scenes ofthe Udyagiri type have come to light from the finds of Ratnagiri and Lalitagiri, there are figures of Buddhist deities such as Marichi and Aparajita, etc. who are depicted in dance pose.

The style of dance, despite the difference ofthemes and cult exhibits a kinship with the sculpture of the dance styles or the sculptural styles found in Sanchi. Amravati and Nagarjunakonda. An affinity in regard to the treatment of the human body is evident. Along side is the evidence in historical chronicles which speak of the prevalence of the dance during this period. Travellers to India such as Huen Tsang referred to the Buddhist Viharas in Orissa. These references are of the general type. The archaeological evidence recently brought forth by Mrs. Debala Mitra reinforces the descriptions in the chronicles. The history of Orissa between the second century B. C. and the ninth century AD. is an interesting  and complex amalgam of the development of different schools of Buddhism, Jainism and what is today identified as Vajrayan Buddhism or Tantrie Buddhism. Eastern India and the Himalayan Kingdom developed or perfected many complex cults and sub-cults ofVajrayan. All these rubbed shoulders with each other before the establishment of major Brahmanical cults namely first Shaivism and then Vaishnavism. Although the Shaivite cults took strong roots in Orissa in the seventh century A.D., their beginnings have to be traced back to the fourth century A D. almost contemporary with the Gupta sculptures ofother regions of India. We encounter here some of the first dance reliefs of the Nataraja. One amongst these (recently recovered from a village ofAsanpat in the District of Keonjhar) is ofspecial importance. It is an inscribed image of Shiva with eight arms holding a veena, tiishulci and akshyamcila, a damruwith apataka and a varada hasta. The inscription in Brahmi characters is ascribed to Shatrubhanja, a king ofthe Bhanja dynasty who constructed shrines for Shiva. Perhaps this image and the famous Nataraja of Nachna are near contemporary. From the sixth and seventh century- onwards there is a massive evidence of dance as part ofworship and presumably7 this dance inspired the sculptors ofthe early7 medieval temples of Bhubaneswar. Within 300 years, nearly five hundred temples were constructed, each a jewel of architecture.

The sculptures are like inset gems adorning walls, lintels, portals, door jambs and ceilings. One of the oldest surviving temples is Bharatesvara belonging to the sixth century A D. Although now in ruins, this temple has a single relief which is of great importance for the history of dance in Orissa. As part of Shiva’s marriage there is an orchestra and a group ofwomen in a dance composition. A little later in the seventh century7 was built the beautiful and impressive temple of Parsuramesvara. In the door lintels ofthis temple appear many7 scenes of music and dance set vertically and horizontally7. Two ofthese show a group ofthree dancers, each in a very distinct movement and y7et interlocked with each other. The panels in the latticed windows are master compositions of movement arrested in stone. Soon after were built important temples namely the Vaitan Deul and the Sisiresvara. A perfectly balanced and harmoniously built piece of architecture, its walls and lintels are covered every- inch with sculptures. Here women peep out from windows, hide behind doors, are intertwined with trees, hold buds, dance on animals and above all there is Durga and Shiva dancing. Judging from the illustrations the sculptural reliefs ofthe temple ofVaital Deul and the image ofDurga as Mahishasurainardini, now discomiected but kept in the centre ofthe temple, it would appear that by- the eighth century-, dance had already- achieved a very- distinctive stylisation in Orissa. Both the panels of Parasuramesvara as also Vaital Deul exhibit Orissan school not only ofsculpture but also of dance. Although the ardhamandali is basic, it is not identical with the ardhamandali of the temples of South India or North India. The deflection of the hip and the tribhanga is basic to each ofthese figures. Although the sculpture reliefs ofthe salabhanjikas are similar to what we find in other parts ofIndia in terms oftheir themes and motifs, the sculptural style as also the movements captured is distinctively Orissan. These are masterpieces in stone, perfect like a beautifully composed poem. The Muktesvara temple, like the Parasurainesvara and the Vaital Deni temples, is a masterpiece for its balance and proportion.

Here also, there are a host of nayikas and nayikas on the walls ofthe temples. Outstanding amongst all their reliefs are two on the ceiling. In one, there is Ganesha in a dancing pose and in another a woman surrounded by a full orchestra The sculptor captiues a most dynamic movement of dance in limited physical space. The movement of perfectly balanced recital is impressive for its dance figures. The story continues in the other temples of Bhubaneswar especially the most exquisitely carved Raja-Rani temple and the impressive grand temple, the Lingaraj. In these, there is a refining of techniques of execution of the movements ofthe dance which had begun charmingly hi the first three temples mentioned. Here too, there is an abundance of dance sculpture. There are the gcincis of dance: there are the standing figures ofwomen, bursting out of stone, pulsating with rhythm. There are the flying figures—the gandharvas and the apsarcis. There are the full groups of dancers and there is the Tcindava of Lord Shiva. A full and systematic documentation of all this corpus of sculptural evidence in Orissa is clear proof ofnot only the permeation ofthe Shaivite cults including that ofLakulisa but also of a very self-conscious understanding ofthe movement of the dance. No matter where you look, there is a dancer or a group of dancers who attract, allure and charm you. "Hie wide variety of the dance image and the deities specially those of Ganesha, Devi and Nataraja, is impressive. Some of these compare favourably with the depiction of the Tandavci ofthe dance in Ellora and elsewhere. Far off in the Aurangabad caves and in Ellora, the concept of Siva’s Tandava had inspired sculptors to make massive reliefs. In Orissa, in the temples of Bhubaneswar subscribing to the Shaivite cult there is an equally impressive array of the deity in the movement ofthe dance. Equally important from the point ofview ofthe precise delineation ofmovement, specially the position (sthancis), the primary movement (chciris) and the cadences of movements (karccnas) described in the Natyasastra are those ofKama or Devi. Here we find a prolific use ofthe extended leg (alidha) or the uplifted leg ofthe cipakranta and of course the most popular ofthem all the urdhvajcinu. There are a few examples also of the bhujanga trasita.

This sculptural evidence of dance in the temples of Bhuvaneswar belonging to the seventh, eighth, ninth and tenth centuries almost comes to a close around the eleventh and twelfth centuries when changes take place in Orissa. Now temples are dedicated to Vishnu. No matter how complex the beginning may have been, it is clear that by the eleventh century A.D., there was the emergence of a Vaishnavite cult distinctive to Orissa. Chodagandeva, a most illustrious ruler, began the construction of the temple ofJagannath some tune between the second half of the eleventh century and the beginning of the twelfth century. He was followed by Anangabhimadev. Between these two rulers was built the temple ofJagannath. a unique synthesis of all that had preceded in Orissa including the tribal cults. Cumulatively, Jagannath temple at Puri was not the only temple but it was the beginning of a new cultural movement in India. No part ofIndia remained unaffected by all that Jagannath temple stood for. The temple itself was outstanding in its architectural plan, its sculptural reliefs and its special hall ofthe dance called the Nat Mandir. Although no definite date can be conclusively ascribed regarding the practice of dance as an indispensable part ofthe ritual ofthe worship or the daily routine, it is clear from chronicle records ofthe temple called Mandal Panji that it was certainly co-terminus with the Jagannath cult. From the records it is learnt that Devadasis were attached to the temples as elsewhere in India especially in Kashmir, Bengal, Saurashtra, Rajasthan and, of course. Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Many inscriptions speak ofthe dancers who were dedicated to the deity Siva or Vishnu and their socio economic organisation. This wide prevalence of temple dancing and its technique, no doubt, inspired and influenced the carving of sculptural reliefs. All these temples between the seventh centuryA.D. and the twelfth century A.D. are evidence ofan innerunderstanding ofdance and an attemptto arrestmoments of dynamic movement rather than an execution of a static pose.

The temple of Ivonarak crystalises all these trends into a magnificent and stupendous edifice. Built round the middle of the thirteenth century, here was a masterpiece of architectural design and an excellence in sculptural relief. Conceived as a chariot or ratha on 24 wheels dedicated to Surya (Sim), the temple reverberateswith the movement of the dance whether in relief or around the main shrine or the Jagmohan or the Bhogmandap and most of all Nat Mandir. In the Vaital Deul women in beautiful poses of charis peep through doors or grills, in Raja Rani temple they pulsate with life emerging from stone almost like detached figures, in Konarak they command the horizon as free standing sculpture. Monumental figures ofmusicians and dancers, offlute and drum players dance as ifin the sky and overlook the space of the earth and reach the ocean. These massive free standing sculptures are in great contrast to the small and delicate wTork of the dancers who are carved on the pillars of the Nat Mandir. The free standing dancers on the roofofthe Jagmohan look atfree space; the carved dancers ofthe Nat Mandir look at space circumscribed as if either they or then* companions would come to life and commence a dance. The pillars punctuate the Nat Mandir, the dancers in stone cling to the pillars almost ready to emerge. The horizontal panels seem as they were marginal figures of a manuscript. Together hundreds or thousands ofthese dimunitive dancers make an orchestration wrhich leaves no spectator untouched or unmoved, with the silent harmony it vibrates. This then is the sculptural heritage of dance in Orissa writh massive and dimunitive dancers, some rough and bold, others delicate and intricate. All these complement each other presenting a world of movement unparallel even in Indian sculptural history. The movement ofthese dancers may or may not be the self-conscious delineation ofthe movement ofthe kamas as in the case of the three South Indian temples mentioned in the context ofthe Bharatanatyam i.e. Brihadesvara, Sarangapani and Chidambaram, but they are certainly a sensitive recreation in stone ofthemovementofdance. Also atno tune they canbe mistaken for anything but an Orissi style of dance.

The ParasurameswarTemple (eighth century), as has been mentioned above, has a number ofsculptures in postures ofthe Tcindava dance. Later temples, such as theVaital Deul, also have reliefs ofNataraja.The earlymedieval temples, especially the Raja Rani Temple, contain on their walls many dance figures; indeed, these figures can be classified into several categories. It has been suggested by some scholarsthat the sculptors ofthese medieval temples, from the eleventh century to the thirteenth century7, were merely trying to create an impression of the rhythms of dance and were not illustrating, the actual movements of dance. A close scrutiny, however, reveals that the sculptor was knowledgeable person illustrating chapters ofthe Natyasastra, even ifin a markedly local style. Without sacrificing the characteristic features of the region, the sculptor demonstrates exquisitely how accurately a dance pose or a chari can be wrought in stone. In these sculptures, we find portr ayed the charis w hich have been discussed in the Natyasastra (Chapter IX). We also find that these temple illustr ations of the most intricate movements are described in the chapter on the Karanas (Chapter IV). By the tune of the Konarak Temple, the style had been set and a very7 distinctive method of body manipulation is apparent . Manuscript Evidence Due to many momentous historical developments in Orissa, although the Jagannath Temple continued to be a great centre of many Vaislinavite Cults, there uras little architectural activity7 or certainly not at the level at w7hich wre find it either between the eighth and tenth century A D. or the eleventh and thirteenth century. It wrould appear that from the fifteenth century onwards, the artists canalised their energies into the wa iting ofmanuscripts, the illustrations of manuscripts and the paintings on the w7alls of temples. Here, as elsewhere, dance is a central preoccupation. It is fi om these earliest illustrated manuscripts of Orissa and the w7all paintings in some ofthese temples that w7e realise that a very special style of dance must have been the experience of the artist The ardhamandali, the tribhanga, the chauka are as popular here as theywrere in the sculptural reliefs. Alongside, of course, wre know7 that Chaitanya made Puri his home and pilgrims thronged to Puri from all parts of India. Dancers came from Andhra and Gujarat Devadasis called Maharis w7ere enlisted for the worship. Many texts of dance w7ere wTitten: all these w7ere profusely illustrated.

An examination ofthe illustrations ofthe manuscripts ofOrissa wThether these deal writh architecture or sculpture or music or dance or are based on the poetic composition ofJayadeva such asthe Gita Govinda or are illustrations oftheAmru Shatak or Usha Parinayam, show's that these are rich in the motifofthe dance. A comprehensive study of the illustrations of dance in Orissan manuscripts reveals the great fascination of the art for both the writer and the painter. Some of these manuscripts deal distinctively only with dance. Chief amongst these is the Ahhinaya Chandrika of Maheshvara Mahapatra. This is a detailed study of the various movements of the feet, hands, the standing postures, the movement and the dance repertoire. Included in these illustrations is the clear depictions ofsome of the Karanas which can be grouped together as acrobatic karcinas especially such as the sciktasya, chakramandala, gangavataran. Also among these is the depiction of the movements described in the Natyasastra as the Vishnu Kranta, Vrichika Kutila. In these illustrations, there is a continuation of the style of dancing which we observed in the dance reliefs oi the Nat Mandir of Konarak. The illustrated manuscripts of Orissan which deal With Orissan architecture and sculpture are also filled with figures of dance. Most important amongst these texts isthe illustrated manuscript Shilpaprakasha. Although the present manuscript may be a copy or a recent reconstruction, its contents certainly point at an earlier tradition. Here a full analysis is made of the manner in which the salabhanjikas or the feminine figures called the alasa kanyas are to be carved in the temple. Many subdivisions are made, the architecture design is indicated both for the single female figures as also ofthe Nataraja called the Natambar. The illustrations ofthe Shilpaprakasha reinforce the evidence ofsculptures in the temple. Quite obviously, there was a very close interaction between the designers, the executors, the theoreticians of dance and sculpture, the creative artists, poets, sculptors, painters and dancers. One other major source of evidence of the prevalence of Orissi dance or the precursors of the style which we may call Orissi, comes from a rather very unexpected soruce. These are the marginal figures of dancers in the Jain manuscripts especially the Kalpasutra and Kalkacharya Kathas. Although executed in Gurajat, these marginal figures showwomen hi poses and movements which are distinctive to Orissi and are not seen in other styles of Indian dancing.

In a famous illustrated manuscript of the Kalpasutra belonging to the fifteenth century i.e. the Devasanpada Kalpasutra as also in another belonging to Jamnagar dated 1501, there is a prolific depiction of the samapada, the tribhangi and the chauka. i.e. the outspread grand plie position ofOrissi dance. It is interesting to note that these manuscripts from Gujarat in western India should have captured a style of dance, which was obviously practised and popular in the easternmost part of India. However, when evidence of these manuscripts is correlated with the other chronicler evidence especially trade and pilgrimage routes, both from the Jagannath Temple as also the temples of Western India, the phenomenon is not strange. From all these, one gathers that there was a great deal of mobility between the west and the east. Many migrations took place and according to some historians, there were groups of dancers who wrere brought to Puri from Gujarat as also from Andhra. In Orissa itself, there continued to be the depiction of the dance in Orissan  manuscripts both in respect ofthe technique of the dance as also illustrations of kavya and nataka until the nineteenth century. Textual Evidence The evidence of dance through sculptural reliefs and illustrated manuscripts (i.e. the pictorial evidence) is further supported by evidence which is available in texts on music and dance which were written in Orissa. We have already referred to the manuscript ofAbhinaya Chandrika. In addition, there are other texts (some published and some unpublished) which were written in Orissa and which are convincing proof of the dialogue and interdependence of theory and practice. An important text of uncertain date is the Sangitanarayan by Narayan Dev Gajapati. One section of the text called nritya khand deals with the dance. It follows the tradition ofSangitaratncikara It analyses the different angas and upangcis: it first delineates the movements and then then* usage. It speaks of the different types of eye and face movements and includes a list of positions in place i. e. sthanci, the primary movement ofthe lower limbs i. e. the charis; the cadence of movements i.e. the karcinas and longer cadences of movement called the mandalas and the angaharas.

The writer finally also attempts a notation of some Sanskrit and Oriya poems and indicates the raga and tala. A close analysis ofthis nritya khand i. e. the chapter on dance in the Sangitanarayan again convinces us of an intra-regional dialogue. The tradition of Sangitaratnakara must undoubtedly have travelled to Orissa so as to enable the writer ofSangitanarayan to base his wrork on the Sangitaratnakara. There is little evidence in this text, howrever, of a clear identification of a style ofdance wdiich wre can call Orissi. There are other texts, such as the Nritya Kaumudi and the Natya Manorama by Raghunath Rath attributed to the eighteenth century". This text describes a variety of dance; it also lists the macro and the micro movements such as the angas and the upangas. The text although interesting, is not very significant. It is important for its detailed list and references to other textual material, despite the fact that it throwrs very little light on the actual practice ofthe dance. More important isthe manuscript oftheAbhinaya Darpana of Yadunath Sinha, perhaps written some time again in the seventeenth or eighteenth century. Here many more technicalities are mentioned. A reading of the text reveals that the wTiter wus acquainted with Bharata’s Natycisastra and wras also acquainted writh the practice of the dance in Orissa. There is another source of evidence in regard to dance in the manuscripts of Orissa; these are the manuscripts which deal with the dance ofShiva. Many manuscripts describe in detail the Tandava ofSiva, speaking not only ofthe theme ofthe Tandava i.e. Ananda Sandhya etc. but also describing in detail the manner in which the Tandava is to be executed. Some of these manuscripts do not follow" the Natyasastra; instead they adhere to the tradition ofthe Saudhikagamas. Again it is evident that there wras an interchange between Orissa and South India because many of the descriptions of the Tandavas are reminiscent of the descriptions which wre come across in the South Indian agamas.  Historical Chronicles Although we have made passing references to the rich body of the historical chronicles available in Orissa, it is necessary to add that the Madal Panji i. e. the drum chronicles ofthe temple ofPuri is the richest storehouse for reconstruct¬ ing the socio economic status ofthe temple dancers, the different categories of men and women dancers.

There are vivid descriptions ofthe occasion, time, and the ritual practices of the temple where dance was an essential part of the worship. Apart from the Madal Panji there are other historical records and chronicles which enable us to know that dance was an important activity both of the temple milieu as also the cotut milieu Orissa. From this material two things are clear; one thattherewere the temple dancers called the maharis who danced inside the centre and outside the shrine; the fust group was known as the Bheetar Gaonis and the other Bahar Gaonis. Besides, there were the Gopipuas or theboy dancersinwomen’s garb who danced outsid e the temple. Thistradition continued until the nineteenth century and the early twentieth century. Creative Literature The evidence ofsculpture, painting, chronicles, textual writing i. e. the manuals and the treatises of technique has to be supplemented with a brief mention of Orissan literature especially poetry and drama. Creative works allude to dance in many ways. These references range from the descriptions ofthe dance in early works ofOrissan literature such astheRamayana and Mahabharata, particularly the Oriya Mahabharata of Saral Das written in the fifteenth century, the Dandi Ramayana, written by Balaram Das in the sixteenth century and the Niladn Mahodaya of Lokanath Vidyadhara ofthe seventeenth century. Many festivals and dramatic recitals are mentioned here. More important than the series of plays are the lyrics which are composed by great writers of Orissa ranging from Ramanand Rai to Upendra Bhanjadev, Kavi Surya, Baladev Rath and others. Most of this writing i.e. the dramatic w'orks, the narrative epic, the Chautisa couplets, ofstanzas which begin with one of 84 consonants in consecutive order belonging to the fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, refer to dance. One may well ask the question what was the situation of both poetry and literature as also the position ofthe dance prior to this. Not many literary w-orks survive ofthe Shaivite tradition ofOrissa thatbelong to the eighth to the eleventh centuries. The real history begins with the composition ofthe greatest work of Sanskrit poetry, namely the Gita Govinda. Although scholars will continue to debate whetherJayadeva came from Orissa or Bengal, there is no doubt that the impact ofthe Gita Govinda wras not only instantaneous but deep and powerful in Orissa.

It is significant to remember that the composition ofthe Gita Govinda was almost contemporary with the construction of the Jagannath temple. Wherever it was written, soon after its composition, there appeared commen¬ taries, transcriptions, translations and imitations ofthe Gita Govinda in Orissa. Some ofthe first commentaries on this great poem were written in Orissa. Most importantwasthe acceptance ofthis poem as a text for worship in the Jagannath temple. The kings of Orissa enjoined that the worship to the Lord will be done through the singing ofthe Gita Govincla. Many stories and legends are prevalent about the attempt made by some kings to replace the. singing of the Gita Govinda by an imitation. The legends go on to narrate how the Lord refused to accept the imitation and how the singing of the Gita Govinda was once again firmly established as pail oftemple worship. An important Oriya inscription of 1499 A D. of Pratap Rudradev clearly mentions that the Gita Govinda alone would be sung at the tune ofthe Bhoga ceremony. Some scholars have questioned the use ofthe word Bada Thakur. While one may not go into the details ofthis controversy, it is clear that no controversies could have arisen unless the original was popular. About the same tune the great saint Shri Chaitanya made Puri his home. It was perhaps through him that this poem received another lease oflife. He identified himself with Radha or the Sakhi and the Gita Govinda was transformed from a pure love poem or a devotional poem to a theological text. The disciples of Chaitanya were zealous missionaries who travelled to all parts of India and gave a new doctrinal turn to the Gita Govinda. Many lungs and nobles, warriors and ministers were converted to this cult, gave up their affluent life and became devotees and missionaries. One amongst these was Ramananda Rai. who became a devout worshipper ofJagannath. According to the Chaitanya Charitamrita, he even taught abhinaya to the devadosis or the maharis. He was also an author of an important play called Jagannath Vallabh Nataka. This Nataka or drama was presented in the precincts of the temple. There were others who followed, such as the writer who called himself Jayadeva-II. He wrote a work called the Piyush Lahari. This was patterned on the Gita Govinda but did not restrict itself to three characters—Krishna, Radha and the Sakhi. The drama was presented outside the temple.

The tradition of the singing of the Gita Govinda, the abhinaya to the Gita Govinda, the dramatic version to the Gita Govinda continued in Orissa for many centuries. Alongside was the writing of plays such as the Parsuram Vijaya by the King Kapilendra Deva of the fourteenth century. All these were also performed in and around the temple. Other poets and lyrical writersfollowed Outstanding amongst thesewas Upendra Bhanjadeo. His songs were popular throughout the countryside and his songs wrere sung by all. It is not known wdiether abhinaya wras performed to them but it is known thatUpendra Bhanjadev’s lyrical creations permeated Orissan society at all levels. Other composers appeared on the scene; these wrere Kavi Surya Baladev Rath Gopal Krishna Pattanayak and Banmalidas. While Kavi Surya’s verses are full ofmusical melody lilting rhythms, Gopal Krishna’s diction is as delicate as effective and Banmali’s poems are full of devotion. Kavi Surya Baldev Rath like the poet musicians of South India of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, adorned the courts ofthe kings, wrote poetry wdiich wras sometimes heroic, at other tunes delicately sensuous and colourful but always full of technical excellence. A real human experience bursts out in his poems where at one level, it is the love ofRadha and Krishna, on other it is the human  love ofman and woman. His champu songs were also equally popular. They had vigour, a touch ofwit and humour and he transformed the divine story ofthe love ofRadha and Krishna into a more human level. The poems can be compared to the Padams and Jcwcdies ofSouth India where also double and triple meanings are inherent Also like the composition ofthe South Indian poets, each ofthese songs can be set to a musical melody and can be danced. The verbal imagery has immense potential for being rendered kinetically. Gopal Krishna Pattanayak had greater poetic sensitivity and as a devout Vaishnav, he composed his lyrics as offeringsto the Lord. He describesthe entire life ofLord Krishna from childhood to adolescence.

He is as enchanted with the image ofthe motherYashodha asthe poets ofSouth India, Dikshitar, Kshetrayya and others. UnlikeUpendraBhanjadev, he alwaysremains at a high spiritual level because the love ofRadha and Krishna for him is the love ofthe primordial sakhi, the woman ofthe Lord. His imagery, his diction, his simple spontaneous manner endeared him to the dancers once again. This became a rich source of the poetic material for the presentation of Orissi dance. Banamali was like his predecessors but even more ofa devotee. He is known to have become a sanycisi and many legends are prevalent about his visions, the experiences he hadwith theLord. Banamali’ssongs are tight, compact, almost like aphorism. They too are both stmg and danced. This tradition ofthe compositions ofthe lyrical poetry of the stanzic words called the chciutisa, the dramaticworks and the singing ofthe Gita Govinda, both in the original Sanskrit and in its several Oriya translations continued well into the nineteenth century. It will be clear from the above, that Orissi or what we recognise as Orissi has a rich sustained history. We have not mentioned here the annual seasonal cycle of festivities in and aroimd the Jagannath Temple which also provided the opportunity for the performance of music and dance. As elsewhere in India, but of universal popularity, were the festivals of the Dol Jatra, the Rath Jatra, the Janmashtami and many others. Each provided an occasion for a different type of presentation of music and dance. One last but most enduring stream needs to be mentioned in this context. This is the rich and vibrant tradition of tribal dancing in many parts of Orissa. The tri